Studies with vegetarian (VG), vegan (VN) and omnivore (OM) children and adolescents (2018–2023)
| Reference | Study sample (design) | Methods | Main results |
| Ambroszkiewicz et al 28 | n=76 (4–9 years), thereof n=51 VG, n=25 OM (cross-sectional) | Anthropometric measurements, dietary recalls, blood samples: amino acid concentrations, 25(OH)D, parathormone, marker of bone metabolism, albumin, prealbumin | VG had comparable energy intake and lower intake of protein, amino acids and calcium, intake of fibre was higher. Blood concentrations of albumin, valine, lysine, leucine, isoleucine were lower, of C-terminal telopeptide of collagen type I (CTX-I) higher in VG; no difference was found in parathormone, IGF-I and osteocalcin concentrations. |
| Ambroszkiewicz et al 29 | n=105 (5–9 years), thereof n=55 VG, n=50 OM (cross-sectional) | Anthropmetric measurements, DXA, dietary recalls, blood samples: myocine, adipokine | Comparable body weight and height, but lower fat mass in VG, similar intakes of energy and calcium, lower intake of energy from protein in VG, no difference in concentrations of mycines and adipokines, lower leptin concentrations in VG, no difference in bone mineral content. |
| Ambroszkiewicz et al 27 | n=106 (5–10 years), thereof n=53 VG, n=53 OM (cross-sectional) | Anthropometric measurements, pubertal stage, dietary recalls, DXA, blood sample: 25-OH-Vitamin D, marker of bone metabolism and leptin | Comparable body weight and height; lower % body fat, leptin and bone mineral density z-scores in VG, comparable concentrations of adiponectin, osteocalcin and C-terminal telopeptide of collagen (CTX), higher parathormone concentrations, lower protein intake in VG, similar intake of calcium. |
| Ambroszkiewicz et al 30 | n=117 (5–10 years), thereof n=62 VG, n=55 OM (cross-sectional) | Anthropmentric measurements, pubertal stage, dietary records, blood sample: adipokines | Comparable body weight and height, but lower fat mass index in VG, comparable energy intake, lower protein intake of VG, lower ratio of leptin to soluble leptin receptors and higher adiponectin/leptin ratio, higher omentin/leptin ratio in VG, no significant differences in the ratios of adiponectin/resistin, omentin/resistin, vaspin/leptin and vaspin/resistin. |
| Alexy et al 11 24 25 | n=401 (6–18 years), thereof n=149 VG, n=115 VN, n=137 OM | Anthropometric measurements, 3day-weighed dietary records, blood (haemoglobin, ferritin, folate, vitamin B2, 25(OH)D, HOLO-TC, MMA, blood lipids) | No difference of BMI, vitamin B2, 25(OH)D, triglycerides between groups, higher folate and MMA, but lower HOLO-TC in VG than in OM, lowest non-HDL and LDL in VN compared with VG and OM, highest ferritin in OM; >30% of 25-OH vitamin D3 and vitamin B2 concentrations below reference values independent from group,24 highest intakes of vegetables, whole grain, legumes, nuts and milk alternatives in VN, less dairy intake in VG than in OM,11 lowest estimated food costs in VG.25 |
| Desmond et al 26 | n=187 (5–10 years), thereof n=63 VG, n=52 VN, n=72 OM (cross-sectional) | Anthropometry, deuterium dilution, DXA and carotid ultrasound | VN had lower body fat indices but similar lean mass, VG and VN had lower bone mineral content and vitamin D-status, and serum B12 (both without supplementation). Supplementation resolved low B-12 and 25(OH)D status. |
| Elliott et al 5 | n=8907 (age 2.2±1.5 years at baseline), thereof n=248 VG1, n=8659 OM (longitudinal: 2.8±1.7 years follow-up) | Anthropometric measures, Vitamin D status, lipoproteins | No evidence of an association between VG diet and z-BMI, height-for-age z-score, serum ferritin, 25-OH-Vitamin-D, or serum lipids, but higher odds of underweight among VG. |
| Hovinen et al 20 | n=40 (median age 3.5 years), thereof n=10 VG, n=6 VN, n=24 OM (cross-sectional) | 4-day food records, anthropometric measures, blood and urine samples | VN had higher intake of fibre and folate and lower intakes of energy from protein and saturated fatty acids than OM. Status of vitamin D, DHA and cholesterol (including total, LDL and HDL) of VN children were lower than those of OM, no difference in Vitamin B12 status and urinary iodine excretion. |
| Weder et al 21 22 | n=430 (1–3 years), thereof n=127 VG, n=139 VN, n=164 OM (cross-sectional) | Dietary records, self-reported data on body weight and height | Body weight and height z-scores did not differ between groups, but more VG and VN were classified as stunted or wasted. Macronutrient pattern differed between groups, and comparison of intake with dietary references indicated vitamin D, iodine and DHA as potential critically for all participants, as well as vitamin B2, vitamin B12, calcium and iron for VG and VN children, only. |
BMI, body mass index; DHA, docosahexaenic acid; DXA, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; HDL, High density lipoprotein; HOLO-TC, holotranscombalamin; IGF-I, insulin-like growth factor 1; LDL, Low density lipoprotein; MMA, methylmalonic acid; non-HDL, non-High density lipoprotein.