Table 4

Bivariate analyses between undernutrition and feeding/caring practice variables

Background variable	Type of intervention and conditions†			Stunting (N=1498)					Underweight(N=1498)					Wasting (N=1498)
	Nutrition specific	Nutrition sensitive	Enabling environment	(+) Stunted		(−) Not stunted		P value^‡	(+) Under weight		(−) Not underweight		P value‡	(+) Wasted		(−) Not wasted		P value‡
	Nutrition specific	Nutrition sensitive		N	(%)	n	(%)	P value^‡	n	(%)	n	(%)	P value‡	n	(%)	n	(%)	P value‡
Categorical variables
Food preparation process
v₆₇: rinse vegetable and fruit with safe water	–	X	–	548	79.2	655	81.3	0.329	248	82.7	955	79.7	0.291	89	83.2	1114	80.1	0.528
: Cook meat thoroughly till meat juice is clear	–	X	–	409	59.1	483	59.9	0.752	181	60.3	711	59.3	0.793	75	70.1	817	58.7	0.024*
v₆₉: store leftovers in cool places§	–	X	–	127	18.4	144	17.9	0.84	51	18.8	220	18.4	0.616	17	15.9	254	18.3	0.604
v₇₀: store staple food in container(s) with cover¶	–	X	–	192	27.7	253	31.4	0.126	84	28	361	30.1	0.481	35	32.7	410	29.5	0.51
v₇₁: store utensils in cabinet after cleaning	–	X	–	95	13.7	107	13.3	0.82	48	16	154	12.9	0.157	23	21.5	1391	92.9	0.018*
v₇₂: iodised table salt	X	–		531	76.7	618	76.7	1	218	72.7	931	77.7	0.067	75	70.1	1074	77.2	0.059
Food preparation conditions
v₇₃: clean cooking fuel††	–	X	–	0	0	2	0.2	0.503	0	0	2	0.2	1	0	0	2	0.1	1
v₇₄: indoor cooking facility‡‡	–	X	–	368	53.2	485	60.2	0.07	161	53.7	692	57.8	0.216	68	63.6	785	56.4	0.158
Infant and young child feeding
v₇₅: breastfed in 1 hour after birth (n=754)§§	X	–	–	223	96.1	490	93.9	0.228	69	93.2	644	94.7	0.587	53	91.4	660	94.8	0.234
v₇₆: exclusively breastfed (n=156)¶¶	X	–	–	22	73.3	95	75.4	0.817	6	66.7	111	75.5	0.692	10	66.7	107	75.9	0.53
v₇₇: continued breastfeeding at 1 year (n=104)***	X	–	–	35	94.6	54	80.6	0.078	14	100	75	83.3	0.212	7	87.5	82	85.4	1
v₇₈: introduction of solid, semi-solid and/or soft foods (n=132)†††	X	–	–	13	54.2	84	77.8	0.023*	4	50	93	75	0.207	5	50	92	75.4	0.129
v₇₉: at least four of seven food groups consumed (n=605)‡‡‡	X	–	–	18	8.9	27	6.7	0.329	6	9.2	39	7.2	0.614	2	4.5	43	7.7	0.763
v₈₀: minimum meal frequency (n=605)§§§	X	–	–	34	16.8	68	16.9	1	9	13.8	93	17.2	0.6	9	20.5	93	16.6	0.53
Pre- and post-birth care
v₈₁:≥4 antenatal care visits	–	X	–	314	45.4	345	42.8	0.322	50	46.7	609	43.8	0.614	189	27.3	236	29.3	0.421
v₈₂: facility-based delivery	–	X	–	345	49.9	421	52.2	0.378	155	51.7	611	51	0.947	53	49.5	713	51.3	0.764
v₈₃: low birth weight (<2500 gram at birth)	X	–	–	89	12.9	99	11	0.262	45	15	132	11.1	0.072	18	16.8	159	11.5	0.119
v₈₄: mother–child cosleeping	X	X	–	636	91.9	777	96.4	<0.001**	265	88.3	1148	95.8	<0.001**	87	90.7	1316	94.6	0.123
Primary attendant for the child’s birth
Skilled birth attendant (physician, nurse and midwife)	–	–	–	596	86.1	703	87.2	Ref.	254	84.7	1045	87.2	Ref.	95	88.8	1204	86.6	Ref.
v₈₅: traditional birth attendant	–	X	–	33	5.1	35	4.7	0.709	12	4.4	56	5	0.875	1	1	67	5.2	0.084
v₈₆: no health worker attended	–	X	–	12	1.9	13	1.7	0.843	5	1.8	20	1.8	1	278	40.2	163	20.2	<0.001**
v₈₇: Do not know do not remember	–	X	–	51	7.4	55	6.8	0.687	29	9.7	77	6.4	0.059	9	8.4	97	7	0.556
Total				692	100	806	100	0.687	300	100	1198	100		107	100	1391	100
Ownership of home-based records
v₈₈: child vaccination card/handbook	X	–	–	368	53.2	436	54.1	0.755	139	46.3	665	55.5	0.005*	42	39.3	762	54.8	0.002*
v₈₉: maternal health card/handbook	X	–	–	72	10.4	85	10.5	1	36	12	121	10.1	0.343	14	13.1	143	10.3	0.33
v₉₀:child health card/handbook	X	–	–	125	18.1	127	15.8	0.24	60	20	192	16	0.102	14	2	15	1.9	0.346
v₉₁: maternal and child health card/handbook	X	–	–	14	2	15	1.9	0.853	8	2.7	21	1.8	0.346	3	2.8	26	1.9	0.457
v₉₂: birth certificate	X	–	–	51	7.4	53	6.6	0.61	30	10	74	6.2	0.030*	13	12.1	91	6.5	0.045*
v₉₃: any home-based record(s)	X	–	–	581	84	679	84.2	0.887	247	82.3	1013	84.6	0.377	88	82.2	1172	84.3	0.583
				Mean	SD	Mean	SD	P value¶¶¶	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	P value¶¶¶	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	P value¶¶¶
Interval and ratio variables
v₉₄: mother’s current height (cm)	X	–	–	153.7	7.02	154.2	7.5	0.020*	153.7	6.66	154.1	7.43	0.117	154.3	6.3	154	7.35	0.676

*p<0.05,
†Categorisation based on the previous review (Black et al. 2013).15
‡χ² test (Fisher’s exact test)
§Cool places include: (i) refrigerator and (ii) under shadow.
¶Materials of containers include: (i) plastic and (ii) metal.
**p<0.01.
††Clean cooking fuel includes: (i) electricity; (ii) gas; and (iii) solar energy (WHO 2016).38
‡‡Indoor cooking facility includes: (i) kitchen in a house and (ii) kitchen in a separate building. (Malla and Timilsina).39
§§Applicable only for children 0–24 months of age (n=754) (WHO 2010).37
¶¶Applicable only for children 0–5 months of age (n=156) (WHO 2010).37
***Applicable only for children 12–15 months of age (n=104) (WHO 2010).37
†††Applicable only for children 6–8 months of age (n=132) (WHO 2010).37
‡‡‡Seven food groups are composed of: (i) grains/roots/tubers; (ii) legumes/nuts; (iii) milk products; (iv) flesh foods; (v) eggs; and (vi) other fruits and vegetables. Applicable only for children 6–23 months of age (n=605) (WHO 2010).37
§§§Minimum meal frequency is defined as: (i) 2 (meal/day) for breastfed children 6–8 months of age; (ii) 3 (meal/day) for breastfed children 9–23 months of age; and (iii) 4 (meal/day) for non-breastfed children 6–23 months of age. Applicable only for children 6–23 months of age (n=605) (WHO 2010).37
¶¶¶Mann-Whitney U test.